Flight Instruments
Flight instruments enable an airplane to be operated with maximum performance and enhanced safety, especially when flying long distances. Manufacturers provide the necessary instruments, but to use them effectively, pilots need to understand how they operate. This page covers the operational aspects of the pitot-static system and associated instruments, the vacuum system and associated instruments, and the magnetic compass.
Pitot-static flight instruments
There are two major parts of the pitot-static system: the impact pressure chamber and lines, and the static pressure chamber and lines. They provide the source of ambient air pressure for the operation of the altimeter, vertical speed indicator (vertical velocity indicator), and the airspeed indicator.
Altimeter:
The altimeter measures the height of the airplane above a given pressure level. Since it is the only of the flight instruments that gives altitude information, the altimeter is one of the most vital flight instruments in the airplane. To use the altimeter effectively, its operation and how atmospheric pressure and temperature affect it must be thoroughly understood. A stack of sealed aneroid wafers comprises the main component of the altimeter.
These wafers expand and contract with changes in atmospheric pressure from the static source. The mechanical linkage translates these changes into pointer movements on the indicator.
Principle of operation
The pressure altimeter is an aneroid barometer that measures the pressure of the atmosphere at the level where the altimeter is located, and presents an altitude indication in feet. The altimeter uses static pressure as its source of operation. Air is denser at sea level than aloft, so as altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases. This difference in pressure at various levels causes the altimeter to indicate changes in altitude.
The presentation of altitude varies considerably between different types of altimeters. Some have one pointer while others have two or more. Only the multipointer type will be discussed on this page.
The dial of a typical altimeter is graduated with numerals arranged clockwise from 0 to 9. Movement of the aneroid element is transmitted through gears to the three hands that indicate altitude. The shortest hand indicates altitude in tens of thousands of feet; the intermediate hand in thousands of feet; and the longest hand in hundreds of feet.
This indicated altitude is correct, however, only when the sea level barometric pressure is standard (29.92 inches of mercury), the sea level free air temperature is standard (+15°C or 59°F), and the pressure and temperature decrease at a standard rate with an increase in altitude. Adjustments for nonstandard conditions are accomplished by setting the corrected pressure into a barometric scale located on the face of the altimeter.
Only after the altimeter is set does it indicate the correct altitude.
Vertical speed indicator
The
VSI is the rate at which the aircraft climbed or deciding. The differential
between static air pressure and pressure inside instrument. A small hole is
present in the instrument from where air enters and leaves at a certain rate.
When pressure inside the VSI instrument is higher than static pressure it means
aircraft climbed with impact on static pressure by decreasing it.
Principle of operation
Although the vertical speed indicator operates solely from static pressure, it is a differential pressure instrument. It contains a diaphragm with connecting linkage and gearing to the indicator pointer inside an airtight case. The inside of the diaphragm is connected directly to the static line of the pitot-static system.
The area outside the diaphragm, which is inside the instrument case, is also connected to the static line, but through a restricted orifice (calibrated leak).
Both the diaphragm and the case receive air from the static line at existing atmospheric pressure. When the airplane is on the ground or in level flight, the pressures inside the diaphragm and the instrument case remain the same and the pointer is at the zero indication. When the airplane climbs or descends, the pressure inside the diaphragm changes immediately, but due to the metering action of the restricted passage, the case pressure remains higher or lower for a short time, causing the diaphragm to contract or expand. This causes a pressure differential that is indicated on the instrument needle as a climb or descent. When the pressure differential stabilizes at a definite ratio, the needle indicates the rate of altitude change.
The vertical speed indicator is capable of displaying two different types of information:
- Trend information shows an immediate indication of an increase or decrease in the airplane’s rate of climb or descent.
- Rate information shows a stabilized rate of change in altitude.
Airspeed indicator
The airspeed indicator is a sensitive, differential pressure gauge which measures and shows promptly the difference between pitot or impact pressure, and static pressure, the undisturbed atmospheric pressure at level flight. These two pressures will be equal when the airplane is parked on the ground in calm air. When the airplane moves through the air, the pressure on the pitot line becomes greater than the pressure in the static lines. This difference in pressure is registered by the airspeed pointer on the face of the instrument, which is calibrated in miles per hour, knots, or both.
Gyroscopic flight instruments
Several flight instruments utilize the properties of a gyroscope for their operation. The most common flight instruments containing gyroscopes are the turn coordinator, heading indicator, and the attitude indicator. To understand how these flight instruments operate requires knowledge of the instrument power systems, gyroscopic principles, and the operating principles of each instrument.
Gyroscopic principles
Any spinning object exhibits gyroscopic properties. A wheel or rotor designed and mounted to utilize these properties is called a gyroscope. Two important design characteristics of an instrument gyro are great weight for its size, or high density, and rotation at high speed with low friction bearings.
There are two general types of mountings; the type used depends upon which property of the gyro is utilized. A freely or universally mounted gyroscope is free to rotate in any direction about its center of gravity. Such a wheel is said to have three planes of freedom. The wheel or rotor is free to rotate in any plane in relation to the base and is so balanced that with the gyro wheel at rest, it will remain in the position in which it is placed. Restricted or semirigidly mounted gyroscopes are those mounted so that one of the planes of freedom is held fixed in relation to the base.
There are two fundamental properties of gyroscopic action—rigidity in space and precession.
Turn indicators
Airplanes use two types of turn indicators—the turn-and-slip indicator and the turn coordinator. Because of the way the gyro is mounted, the turn-and-slip indicator only shows the rate of turn in degrees per second.
Because the gyro on the turn coordinator is set at an angle, or canted, it can initially also show roll rate.
Once the roll stabilizes, it indicates rate of turn.
Both flight instruments indicate turn direction and quality (coordination), and also serve as a backup source of bank information in the event an attitude indicator fails. Coordination is achieved by referring to the inclinometer, which consists of a liquid-filled curved tube with a ball inside.
Turn-and-slip indicator
The gyro in the turn-and-slip indicator rotates in the vertical plane, corresponding to the airplane’s longitudinal axis. A single gimbal limits the planes in which the gyro can tilt, and a spring tries to return it to center. Because of precession, a yawing force causes the gyro to tilt left or right as viewed from the pilot seat.
The turn-and-slip indicator uses a pointer, called the turn needle, to show the direction and rate of turn.
Turn coordinator
The gimbal in the turn coordinator is canted; therefore, its gyro can sense both rate of roll and rate of turn.
Since turn coordinators are more prevalent in training airplanes, this discussion concentrates on that instrument.
When rolling into or out of a turn, the miniature airplane banks in the direction the airplane is rolled. A rapid roll rate causes the miniature airplane to bank more steeply than a slow roll rate.
The turn coordinator can be used to establish and maintain a standard-rate-turn by aligning the wing of the miniature airplane with the turn index. The turn coordinator indicates only the rate and direction of turn; it does not display a specific angle of bank.
Inclinometer
The inclinometer is used to depict airplane yaw, which is the side-to-side movement of the airplane’s nose.
During coordinated, straight-and-level flight, the force of gravity causes the ball to rest in the lowest part of the tube, centered between the reference lines. Coordinated flight is maintained by keeping the ball centered. If the ball is not centered, it can be centered by using the rudder.
To do this, apply rudder pressure on the side where the ball is deflected. Use the simple rule, “step on the ball,” to remember which rudder pedal to press.
If aileron and rudder are coordinated during a turn, the ball remains centered in the tube. If aerodynamic forces are unbalanced, the ball moves away from the center of the tube. As shown in figure 15, in a slip, the rate of turn is too slow for the angle of bank, and the ball moves to the inside of the turn. In a skid, the rate of turn is too great for the angle of bank, and the ball moves to the outside of the turn. To correct for these conditions, and improve the quality of the turn, remember to “step on the ball.” Varying the angle of bank can also help restore coordinated flight from a slip or skid.
To correct for a slip, decrease bank and/or increase the rate of turn. To correct for a skid, increase the bank and/or decrease the rate of turn.
The attitude indicator
The attitude indicator, with its miniature airplane and horizon bar, displays a picture of the attitude of the airplane.
The relationship of the miniature airplane to the horizon bar is the same as the relationship of the real airplane to the actual horizon. The instrument gives an instantaneous indication of even the smallest changes in attitude.
The gyro in the attitude indicator is mounted on a horizontal plane and depends upon rigidity in space for its operation. The horizon bar represents the true horizon.
This bar is fixed to the gyro and remains in a horizontal plane as the airplane is pitched or banked about its lateral or longitudinal axis, indicating the attitude of the airplane relative to the true horizon.
Heading indicator
The heading indicator (or directional gyro) is fundamentally a mechanical instrument designed to facilitate the use of the magnetic compass. Errors in the magnetic compass are numerous, making straight flight and precision turns to headings difficult to accomplish, particularly in turbulent air. A heading indicator, however, is not affected by the forces that make the magnetic compass difficult to interpret.
The operation of the heading indicator depends upon the principle of rigidity in space. The rotor turns in a vertical plane, and fixed to the rotor is a compass card.
Since the rotor remains rigid in space, the points on the card hold the same position in space relative to the vertical plane. As the instrument case and the airplane revolve around the vertical axis, the card provides clear and accurate heading information.
Because of precession, caused by friction, the heading indicator will creep or drift from a heading to which it is set. Among other factors, the amount of drift depends largely upon the condition of the instrument. If the bearings are worn, dirty, or improperly lubricated, the drift may be excessive. Another error in the heading indicator is caused by the fact that the gyro is oriented in space, and the earth rotates in space at a rate of 15° in 1 hour. Thus, discounting precession caused by friction, the heading indicator may indicate as much as 15° error per every hour of operation.
Some heading indicators receive a magnetic north reference from a magnetic slaving transmitter, and generally need no adjustment. Heading indicators that do not have this automatic north-seeking capability are called “free” gyros, and require periodic adjustment. It is important to check the indications frequently (approximately every 15 minutes) and reset the heading indicator to align it with the magnetic compass when required.
Adjust the heading indicator to the magnetic compass heading when the airplane is straight and level at a constant speed to avoid compass errors.
The bank and pitch limits of the heading indicator vary with the particular design and make of instrument. On some heading indicators found in light airplanes, the limits are approximately 55° of pitch and 55° of bank.
When either of these attitude limits is exceeded, the instrument “tumbles” or “spills” and no longer gives the correct indication until reset. After spilling, it may be reset with the caging knob. Many of the modern flight instruments used are designed in such a manner that they will not tumble.
